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"The power which a man's imagination has over his body to heal it or make it sick is a force which none of us is born without." Mark Twain What if the most powerful ingredient in a pill wasn't the medicine, but your expectations? In many research projects, scientists employ a pill that affects the body based on what the recipient is told about it. This pill is considered a placebo: something that triggers a genuine response to a non-therapeutic treatment. The placebo effect is an authentic reaction stimulated by a person's belief, expectations, and social cues rather than by chemicals. While scientists cannot fully understand how placebos work, it is known that they involve the brain’s ability to release natural chemicals that mimic the responses typically produced by therapeutic methods. This stems from higher cognitive centers regulating lower sensory and physiological functions. When the body experiences physical pain, the brain typically generates natural morphine-like substances, which act like pain medication. Additionally, neurotransmitter systems like dopamine---which plays a vital role in the brain's reward system---regulate individuals' perception of reality. Yet, there are also other factors, including social and personal conditioning, that contribute to this phenomenon. From mood-enhancing hormones to immense activity in specific brain areas connected to expectation, emotion, and reward, the placebo effect is considered a neurobiological phenomenon. There have been numerous cases where placebos have benefited patients. In a study of Open-Label Placebo Treatment for Cancer-Related Fatigue, it was proven that those who took the placebo during the first three weeks experienced less fatigue than those who only received their normal treatment. In addition, even after the three weeks were over, the placebo group continued to benefit, and the standard treatment group also experienced improvements in fatigue after taking the pill. Researchers use placebos to identify the actual improvements from a drug. Essentially, it acts as the experiment’s control variable. Placebos are integrated widely in trials and acknowledged as the ‘gold standard’ to evaluate whether a treatment is effective. Additionally, it helps scientists test the drug’s true contribution towards the participants or patients; without it, treatment would seem more effective than it actually is. Considering all that the placebo effect can do, there is one question researchers have asked: can negative expectations towards a drug cause the same consequences in patients? The answer is yes---there have been multiple occurrences where people have experienced negative side effects despite having received an inactive substance. This effect is called the ‘placebo effect’s evil twin’ or, more often, the Nocebo effect. Just like the placebo effect, the brain influences the body through expectations. For example, if your doctor says an injection will hurt, the body may perceive it to be painful, whereas the pain may be less intense if the doctor says otherwise. Ultimately, the placebo effect shows us the relationship between the mind and the body and how we can use this knowledge to our advantage. Our mindset is one of the biggest impactors on our health. Just like a pill, the seed of optimism we carry into our lives gives us the power over our body and how we choose to treat it. References Cherry, K. (2011). How the Placebo Effect Works in Psychology. In Verywell Mind. Verywellmind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-placebo-effect-2795466 Clinic, C. (2024). What’s the Nocebo Effect? Examples and Effects on Your Health. In Cleveland Clinic. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/nocebo-effect Helmenstine, A. (2023). Placebo Effect - What It Is and How It Works. In Science Notes and Projects. https://sciencenotes.org/placebo-effect-what-it-is-and-how-it-works/ Hoenemeyer, T. W., Kaptchuk, T. J., Mehta, T. S., & Fontaine, K. R. (2018). Open-Label Placebo Treatment for Cancer-Related Fatigue: A Randomized-Controlled Clinical Trial. Scientific Reports, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-20993-y How Placebos Work: The Science Behind the Effect. (2025). In ScienceInsights. https://scienceinsights.org/how-placebos-work-the-science-behind-the-effect/ LeWine, H. (2024). The power of the placebo effect. In Harvard Health. Harvard Health Publishing. https://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletter_article/the-power-of-the-placebo-effect Saling, J. (2022). What Is the Placebo Effect? In WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/pain-management/what-is-the-placebo-effect Why Are Placebos Used in Clinical Trials: Bias and Biology. (2026). In ScienceInsights. https://scienceinsights.org/why-are-placebos-used-in-clinical-trials-bias-and-biology/ Image References https://www.insidehook.com/wellness/whos-afraid-placebo-effect-medicine https://www.brainsway.com/knowledge-center/the-placebo-effect-medication-and-mental-health/ https://www.madinamerica.com/2024/07/placebo-effect-for-all-psychiatric-diagnoses-of-considerable-magnitude/ © 2026 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved Originally published at themedtales.com

“The greatest opportunity offered by AI is not reducing errors or workloads, or even curing cancer: it is the opportunity to restore the precious and time-honored connection and trust between patients and doctors." Dr. Eric Topol, cardiologist and author of Deep Medicine 72% of physicians rely on an assistant that makes their job instantly easier–except this ‘assistant’ wears no face (OpenAI, 2026). From lobotomy to medications and mercury to antibiotics, the practice of medicine continues to evolve through new advancements that tackle important health challenges more effectively. Practices we used to think required cognitive abilities unique to humans can now be sourced from something entirely different through a human creation: Artificial Intelligence. Giant technology companies like Microsoft and Google are now investing in AI research and integration into the healthcare sector. This is no surprise given the vast potential these systems hold in transforming medicine and the delivery of healthcare in ways we have yet to discover. Considering the profound changes that technology has had on healthcare so far, we can imagine AI transforming everyday healthcare for people in the future. In the same industry where physicians used to fall into administrative overload and spend hours in what is called "pajama time," AI now has the power to eliminate this clinical burnout. Before this, doctors had to rush to take notes during patient visits, but with AI, doctors can now give patients their undivided attention and restore connection. Clinicians no longer need to translate everyday conversation into clinical language such as SOAP notes. AI can already automate this task, leaving doctors with more mental energy to make medical decisions. By drastically reducing physician time on Electronic Health Records from hours to minutes, doctors are able to dedicate more time to rest, promoting work-life balance. Still, it is important to recognize that although AI may speed up the documentation process without increasing staff members, only 10% of medical executives have formally integrated it into their workplace (Purohit, 2025). From what used to take days for a team of researchers to interpret, diseases can now be accurately predicted by technology through analyzing immense amounts of data in mere minutes. Every minute, there are quiet clinical eyes watching over hundreds of patients’ vitals, monitoring minor changes in data points to eventually detect irregularities that may be early signs of disease. Multiple companies have already developed AI imaging and anomaly detection tools. For example, Google Health engineered systems able to uncover breast cancer with fewer false positives and negatives than human professionals (Google for Health, 2025). As AI slowly becomes more and more integrated into the practice of medicine, experts believe it will soon become an everyday clinical tool to improve patient experience and physician work. Dr. Robert Pearl, former CEO of The Permanente Medical Group, voiced, "AI will be as common in healthcare as the stethoscope.” While AI provides many utilitarian benefits, it also has its limitations. Furthermore, the increasing rise of AI in healthcare raises important questions about the safety frameworks and limits to how much these machine-learning tools can participate in healthcare while still retaining the human aspect of medicine. Government and medical organizations have voiced numerous critical risks AI integration poses, such as data privacy and security risks, lack of "human warmth and compassion," overreliance, and skill atrophy. Optimizing the benefits while moderating drawbacks from AI requires careful evaluation of it before widespread implementation (HITRUST, 2023). In overview, the application of AI in healthcare necessitates safety frameworks and limitations to ensure a safe workplace and healthy usage of this new tool in health services. In a study conducted by Wolters Kluwer titled “Generative AI: Balancing today’s needs and tomorrow’s vision,” they found that while 63% of medical personnel were eager to apply AI to their workflows, only 18% were aware of any regulatory policies or training at their institutions. Considering the benefits AI can bring to healthcare, we may revolutionize healthcare delivery for the public with its implementation of it. Despite all these advances, however, we must not forget the human touch that molded medicine. No matter how innovative the industry seems to be, AI should be kept as a tool, not a replacement for professional care. Just like the stethoscope, the power of algorithms can only act as an extension of the skill of the person wielding it. It will never become a substitute for years of studying and experience, the comfort given to despondent families, nor a person who can make complex ethical decisions that require empathy and professional judgement. Patient care is ultimately a responsibility that lies on the shoulders of medical experts, making humans vital to the practice of medicine. With regulation, ethical boundaries, and persisting human compassion, AI truly can become a valuable tool in not only forwarding healthcare, but also restoring and preserving the care in the heart of medicine. References AI in Medical Diagnostics: Catching Illness Before It Starts. (2026). Vivatechnology. https://vivatech.com/news/ai-in-medical-diagnostics-catching-illness-before-it-starts (2026). Openai.Com. https://openai.com/index/making-chatgpt-better-for-clinicians/ Tosh Purohit, D. G. (2025, December 12). AI Medical Scribe Guide: How It Works, Benefits & Real Impact. OmniMD. https://omnimd.com/blog/ai-medical-scribes-everything-you-need-to-know/ HITRUST. (2023, November 20). The Pros and Cons of AI in Healthcare. Hitrustalliance.Net. https://hitrustalliance.net/blog/the-pros-and-cons-of-ai-in-healthcare Generative AI: Balancing today’s needs and tomorrow’s vision | Future Ready Healthcare. (2025). Wolterskluwer.Com. https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/know/future-ready-healthcare Google for Health - Advancing Breast Cancer Detection with AI. (2025). Google Health. https://health.google/mammography/ Image Reference https://www.shiftmed.com/insights/knowledge-center/impact-of-ai-in-healthcare-administration/ © 2026 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved Originally published at themedtales.com

Since its discovery in the brain, dopamine has been regarded by scientists as one of the brain’s most vital neurotransmitters. Though frequently portrayed in social media as a “pleasure hormone” or “reward molecule” [1], dopamine spans a range of processes beyond making us “feel good” and has important implications in neuroscience and in our everyday lives. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter synthesised from the amino acid phenylalanine [2] that is produced mainly in the midbrain of the brainstem. The midbrain is divided into two main regions: the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the substantia nigra [1-4]. Dopamine neurons in these regions project to other brain regions, forming pathways (Figure 1) involved in a wide range of cognitive processes. For example, the mesolimbic pathway, which forms when dopamine neurons in the VTA project to the nucleus accumbens, plays a role in rewarding experiences, and the nigrostriatal pathway, which forms when dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra project to the dorsal striatum, plays a role in movement [1, 3-5]. Figure 1. Main dopamine pathways in the brain (Boggio et al. 2023) Dopamine binds to five different subtypes of dopamine receptors (D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5), activating a G protein. This triggers an increase or decrease in the concentration of the second messenger cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), depending on the receptor type (increase for D1 and D5 receptors, and decrease for D2, D3, and D4 receptors). In turn, this stimulates various cellular responses, such as the activation or deactivation of specific proteins that mediate various cognitive functions [1–3]. The most well-known cognitive function influenced by dopamine signalling tends to be the feeling of pleasure and reward [1,3]. However, it would be an oversimplification to say that dopamine makes us “feel good” during rewarding experiences. Dopamine is involved in reward prediction error (RPE), which is defined as the difference between the reward that is expected and the reward that is received [1, 3-5]. In other words, dopamine increases when a reward is better than expected, increasing the likelihood that future actions will be taken to obtain the reward again, and the opposite happens when the reward does not meet one's expectations [1,5]. An important finding regarding the role of dopamine in pleasure and reward is that when a reward is completely as expected, dopamine does not increase in response to the reward but rather in response to the reward’s cue [1,5]. This idea has become important in explaining the science behind addictive behaviors, such as excessive social media usage. On social media, cues such as notifications, messages, and likes increase dopamine by activating the mesolimbic pathway and satisfying the human need for social approval. It is important to note that these cues are unpredictable, as users cannot predict when they will receive a like. Previous research has determined that unpredictable cues tend to sustain long-term dopamine signalling compared to predictable cues and reinforce repeated engagement with social media, such as frequent checking. Another notable fact is that the cues are quantifiable, with a greater number of cues, such as more likes on a post, generally resulting in a greater activation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway [5]. Beyond its role in pleasure and reward, dopamine also plays a vital role in voluntary movement [1,3]. This was demonstrated in the 1950s when Swedish neuropharmacologist Arvid Carlsson, the scientist who first discovered dopamine in the brain, inhibited dopamine transmission in rabbits, paralyzing the animals [1]. However, movement was restored when the rabbits were injected with L-DOPA, a precursor molecule used in the synthesis of dopamine [1,2]. This experiment formed the basis of understanding the role of dopamine in movement and led to the hypothesis that the movement-related symptoms of Parkinson’s Disease (PD), such as tremors, may be due to the death of dopamine neurons in regions of the brain, such as the substantia nigra [1–3]. Additionally, dopamine plays a role in working memory, emotions, endocrine function, gastrointestinal function, immune responses, and higher-level cognitive processes [1-3]. Dopamine is also often thought of as a “neuromodulator” that is directly or indirectly involved in nearly every cognitive function that occurs in the central nervous system and various functions that occur in the peripheral nervous system [1–4]. In overview, dopamine is far more than a “pleasure or reward chemical” and has important implications in medicine and in our daily lives. Research into dopamine has been pivotal in developing medical interventions against various neuropsychiatric disorders, such as Parkinson’s Disease, schizophrenia, and substance use disorder, and in better understanding the day-to-day actions and habits that define us as humans. References Dopamine: Current Biology Dopamine in Health and Disease: Much More Than a Neurotransmitter Dopamine Pharmacodynamics: New Insights Reappraising the role of dopamine in adolescent risk-taking behavior - ScienceDirect Social Approval, Reward Learning, and the Neurobiological Basis of Social Media Use: A Narrative Review | Journal of Consultation Liaison Psychiatry Image Credits Fig. 1.3, [Main dopamine pathways in the brain]. - Social and Affective Neuroscience of Everyday Human Interaction - NCBI Bookshelf © 2025 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved Originally published at themedtales.com

When you hear the word scoliosis, you might picture someone with bad posture or a heavy backpack. In reality, it is neither of these things. Scoliosis is a condition in which the spine curves sideways and often twists, forming an “S” or “C” shape instead of appearing straight. As someone living with scoliosis myself, I know how easy it is for people to misunderstand the condition or assume it is caused by poor posture. However, learning more about it has shown me that there is so much more to scoliosis than many people realize. While mild cases may go unnoticed, roughly 2-4% of teenagers worldwide are affected by scoliosis, making it one of the most common spinal conditions in teenagers. Because it often develops during puberty due to rapid growth spurts, understanding scoliosis can help young people understand and recognize early signs to seek appropriate care when needed. Figure 1. Measuring the Cobb Angle A healthy spine is designed to look straight when viewed from behind. However, in scoliosis patients, the spine curves sideways, usually by 10 degrees or more. This is a measurement known as the Cobb angle. In many cases, the spine also rotates, causing a shoulder blade or a side of the rib cage to appear more prominent than the other. There are several types of scoliosis, but the most common is adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS). AIS affects 1-3% of children in the population, with those aged 10-15 years. The word idiopathic means that the exact cause is unknown. Although researchers believe genetics may play a role because scoliosis runs in families, no single cause has been identified yet. Scoliosis usually develops rapidly between the ages of 10 and 18. Many teenagers do not experience pain, and they only begin to notice its symptoms when one shoulder begins to sit higher than the other, clothes fit unevenly, or an adult notices a significant change in posture. To diagnose scoliosis, a doctor may perform a simple physical examination called the Adam’s Forward Bend Test, where the patient bends forward while the doctor checks for unevenness in the back. If scoliosis is suspected, an X-ray is used to measure the Cobb angle and determine how severe the curve is. Treatment depends on several factors, including the size of the curve, the patient’s age, and whether they’re still growing. Small curves are often monitored with regular checkups to ensure they do not worsen. Moderate curves in growing teenagers may be treated with a supportive brace that the patient must wear during the day (typically 10+ hours and, in severe cases, up to 23 hours) and may be recommended to partake in physiotherapy, which strengthens muscles and improves posture. Surgery is usually considered only for severe curves that continue to worsen despite other treatments. The most common surgery is called a spinal fusion, involving straightening the spine using metal rods and screws, then ‘welding’ the curved bones together with bone grafts so they heal into a single solid piece. Figure 2. A Scoliosis Brace Figure 3. Spinal Fusion Surgery Results As mentioned earlier, scoliosis is most commonly diagnosed during adolescence, making it especially relevant for students. One of the biggest misconceptions regarding scoliosis is that it is caused by carrying a heavy backpack or having poor posture. However, in reality, these factors cannot directly cause scoliosis. While carrying a bulky backpack can lead to temporary back pain, it does not change the shape of the spine, while having bad posture could be a symptom of scoliosis. Having scoliosis does not mean someone cannot live an active life. Many teenagers with scoliosis continue to participate in sports and engage in other physical activities. Indeed, staying active is often encouraged because it helps maintain muscle strength, overall flexibility, and well-being. At the end of the day, understanding scoliosis can help dismantle these common misconceptions about it and remind us that a curved spine does not define a person’s abilities or potential. Although scoliosis may sound intimidating, it is a common condition that many young people successfully manage. Writing this article as someone with scoliosis has reminded me how important awareness is, as understanding the condition is the first and most important step towards replacing misconceptions with the facts and supporting those around you living with this condition. With regular monitoring, appropriate treatment, and continued physical activity, most teenagers with this condition (including me!) can still live healthy and active lives. References Jo, H. (2024, December 30). Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis: Diagnosis, Treatments and Results. Hospital for Special Surgery. https://www.hss.edu/health-library/conditions-and-treatments/adolescent-idiopathic-scoliosis Kim, H., Chang, B.-S., & Chang, S. Y. (2024). Current issues in the treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: A comprehensive narrative review [Review of Current issues in the treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: A comprehensive narrative review]. Asian Spine Journal. https://doi.org/10.31616/asj.2024.0367 Li, M., Nie, Q., Liu, J., & Jiang, Z. (2024). Prevalence of scoliosis in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis [Review of Prevalence of scoliosis in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis]. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2024.1399049 NHS. (2019). Scoliosis. NHS. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/scoliosis/ NIAMS. (2017, April 7). NIAMS Health Information on Scoliosis. National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases. https://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/scoliosis Scoliosis - Symptoms and causes. (2024). Mayo Clinic;  . https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/scoliosis/symptoms-causes/syc-2035071 Spinal Fusion - OrthoInfo - AAOS. (2026). Orthoinfo.Org. https://www.orthoinfo.org/treatment/spinal-fusion/ Image Citations Figure 1: https://radiopaedia.org/articles/cobb-angle Figure 2: https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions-treatments/scoliosis-bracing Figure 3: https://spinehealth.org/article/what-doctors-wish-their-patients-knew-about-spinal-fu © 2025 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved Originally published at themedtales.com

Imagine a physically fit individual. What comes to mind? For most people, it is someone who is slender and has healthy hair, nails, and teeth. Yet, the fundamental determinant of fitness is almost always overlooked: proper nutritional intake. Nutrition builds the foundation of one's overall health, supplying them with the necessary nutrients to function. Neglecting to consume meals with proper nutritional value for one’s body type can result in hair loss, teeth decay, inhibited growth of nails and bones, and many other ailments that affect the internal processes of the body. The hectic urban life has made the average person increasingly susceptible to nutritional deficiencies. This is primarily because the majority of people choose to consume fast food over home-cooked meals, owing to its cheapness, convenience, and accessibility. Furthermore, fast food is primarily composed of sodium, sugars, and fats [1] which contribute to their addictive nature, making them easy to over- consume. Consequently, an alarmingly high number of individuals are at an increased risk of developing chronic diseases, such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease [2]. Despite this, nutritional deficiency is often perceived as having a single, universal image—the emaciated figure portrayed in textbooks. This misconception reiterates the stigma surrounding individuals who appear either physically ‘fit’ or ‘overweight,’ discouraging them from acknowledging or seeking help for nutritional deficiencies. Malnutrition can affect individuals across the body-weight spectrum, from those who appear physically fit to those who are obese. Approximately 2 billion ‘obese’ people are classified as ‘malnourished’ [3], as diets high in ultra-processed foods provide ample energy but insufficient essential vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. Similarly, individuals who appear physically fit may also experience malnutrition, often by engaging in harmful and/or restrictive diets without professional guidance. For instance, ketogenic diets have been shown to lower blood levels of triglycerides and increase LDL cholesterol in individuals [4]. Even many athletes, who are hailed as the pinnacle of physical fitness, are reported to face forms of malnutrition, namely relative energy deficiency and micronutrient deficiencies. This is largely due to their diet comprising high glycemic foods, excess omega-6 lipid consumption [5], and insufficient energy intake relative to training demands, as well as inadequate intake of essential micronutrients. Raising youth awareness of this issue is critical, as dietary guidance for adolescents in their formative years can create lifelong habits. Numerous studies underscore the importance of adequate nutrient intake during adolescence for optimal physical and cognitive development. Maintaining a balanced diet, eating regular meals, undergoing routine medical check-ups and blood tests when appropriate, and engaging in regular physical activity are all practical measures that can help individuals monitor and improve their nutritional status. In a society that equates health with appearance, it is indispensable that young people remain aware of their nutritional needs over physical aesthetics. At the end of the day, good nutrition should not be judged by appearance alone but by whether the body's physiological needs are being adequately met. References 1. [Amith M, Onye C, Ledoux T, Xiong G, Tao C. The ontology of fast food facts: conceptualization of nutritional fast food data for consumers and semantic web applications. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. 2021;21(Suppl 7):275. Published 2021 Nov 9. doi:10.1186/s12911-021-01636-1] 2. [Khan AR, Khan MA, Khan Z. Health hazards of fast food consumption amongst medical and non medical undergraduates of Ayub Medical College and Comsats University Abbottabad. Khyber J Med Sci. 2025;16(2).] 3. [Raposeiras Roubín S, Abu Assi E, Cespón Fernandez M, et al. Prevalence and Prognostic Significance of Malnutrition in Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(7):828-840. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2020.06.058] 4. [https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/keto-diet-is-not-healthy-and-may-harm-the-heart] 5. [Maffetone PB, Laursen PB. Athletes: Fit but Unhealthy?. Sports Med Open. 2015;2:24. doi:10.1186/s40798-016-0048-x] Image Credits https://www.guardian.in/blogs/livewell/what-is-the-importance-of-physical-fitness © 2025 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved Originally published at themedtales.com

For much of modern medical practice, treatment has focused on managing disease rather than eliminating underlying causes. While advances in pharmacology and surgical intervention have significantly improved survival and quality of life across a range of conditions, many genetic disorders remain fundamentally incurable, requiring lifelong management instead. However, in recent years, emergent gene-editing technologies have been challenging this paradigm. CRISPR-based systems now enable targeted modifications of DNA, the molecular substrate of heredity. Once regarded as a theoretical or experimental tool, gene editing has progressed rapidly toward promising clinical applications. Its emergence represents a potential shift in medicine from symptomatic treatment towards genetic-level intervention, with implications spanning inherited disease, oncology, and regenerative medicine. DNA encodes the biological instructions required for cellular function and organismal development. These instructions are organized into genes, which direct the synthesis of proteins that regulate nearly all physiological processes. Mutations in the DNA sequence can alter protein structure or expression, contributing to disease development. Gene-editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9 have enabled direct intervention at the microscopic level of the genome. Derived from a bacterial adaptive immune system, CRISPR uses a guide RNA to direct a nuclease to a specific genomic location. Once bound, the enzyme introduces a double-stranded break in DNA, which can then be repaired through cellular mechanisms that allow for targeted disruption or correction of genetic material. This approach has translated into clinically relevant therapies. In 2023, the first CRISPR-based treatment for sickle cell disease received regulatory approval. Sickle cell disease results from a mutation in the HBB gene, which encodes a specific subunit of hemoglobin. The mutation leads to the production of structurally abnormal hemoglobin, resulting in deformed erythrocytes and subsequent vascular occlusion. Gene-editing approaches targeting important hematopoietic stem cells can restore more typical hemoglobin expression levels, reducing disease severity in the affected individual. Ongoing research is extending these methods to additional conditions, including inherited retinal disorders, primary immunodeficiencies, and certain malignancies. While clinical translation remains limited to a small number of approved therapies, the field is advancing rapidly and is increasingly situated within a vast framework of precision medicine. The implications of gene editing extend beyond specialized clinical settings, particularly since many genetic disorders manifest during childhood and adolescence. Advancements in this field may therefore alter the long-term prognosis for conditions that are currently chronic and progressively debilitating. At the same time, however, this expansion of genetic medicine does introduce complex ethical and societal considerations. The boundary between therapeutic intervention and enhancement remains scientifically and philosophically contested. Questions regarding equitable access, long-term safety, and appropriate regulatory oversight remain unresolved and will likely require sustained engagement from both scientific and public stakeholders. For younger populations, these developments are particularly relevant not only as potential patients, but also as future researchers and participants in scientific, medical, and public policy. In conclusion, gene-editing technologies represent a significant development in contemporary biomedical science, with the potential to fundamentally alter the treatment of genetic disease. While early clinical successes have demonstrated clear therapeutic promise, the field remains in an early stage of translation, with substantial technical, ethical, and regulatory challenges still to be addressed. As genetic medicine continues evolving, its ultimate impact will depend not only on scientific progress but also on the frameworks established to guide its responsible application in clinical practice. References https://crisprtx.com/ https://news.stanford.edu/stories/2024/06/stanford-explainer-crispr-gene-editing-and-beyond https://ep.bmj.com/content/101/4/213.short https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-023-01309-7 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1044579X17302742 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7427626/ Image Credits https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-dark-side-of-crispr/ © 2026 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved Originally published at themedtales.com

Ageism comes in many different shapes and forms. Ageism can range from inadvertently avoiding eye contact with older adults to refusing to provide healthcare services to the elderly. Regardless of the severity of the discrimination, understanding how societal prejudices affect healthcare delivery is essential in creating a safe healthcare ecosystem for all generations. Image: Designed on Canva A Nature report from 2025 found that ageism affects older patients physiologically, psychologically, and behaviorally. Take a look to find out more about how ageism affects healthcare outcomes! Effects of Healthcare Experimental Conditions Results Physical Effects The study used vagally mediated HRV (heart rate variability) as a measurement of physical health, since a low HRV score has been associated with stress and cardiovascular mortality in other stigmatized groups. Among the 64 elderly participants in this experiment, those who experienced healthcare discrimination had a larger decrease in HRV than those who did not. Psychological Effects The study examined the relationship between patient trust and psychological health. The elderly who experienced discrimination had lower levels of trust in the healthcare provider than the elderly who did not experience discrimination. Behavioral Effects Previous studies reported that victims of discrimination were much more likely to take part in "unhealthy behaviors," such as substance abuse, sleep deprivation, and avoiding regular medical checkups. There was increased avoidance of the experimental healthcare worker in the elderly who experienced ageism.  Although this study alone cannot account for all of the possible consequences of ageism in healthcare, it shows a glimpse of how one's personal biases can, and do, interfere with healthcare delivery. How Is This Relevant To Teenagers? There is a very common misconception regarding ageism: ageism only affects the elderly.  However, this belief could not be farther from the truth. In reality, children, even those who do not yet have the words to describe this bias, internalize ageism from as young as 4 years old. As a result, these biases eventually form the worldview from which children perceive others and themselves.  Ageism can also affect young adults and teenagers (like you and me)! Ageism exists in the workplace, where there are implicit social hierarchies that limit young employees' roles. Ageism exists in young adults who are afraid to take risks, simply because they have been taught that they are too "old" to change routes. Image: Designed on Canva Truly, this issue is not limited to one sector, one country, or even one generation. Ageism has seeped into every crevice of our lives, impacting both the 1.4 billion elderly in the world and the other 6.9 billion who have also been affected by the cycle of ageism. Ageism is not only a healthcare issue but also a societal one that dismantles the trust between generations. What Can I Do to Combat Ageism in Healthcare? Now that we understand the widespread and destructive nature of ageism, what can we, as teenagers, do to combat such issues? Here is a list of several action items that can promote societal change. Advocate for laws that promote fair healthcare delivery for all age groups. In the United States, high school students can intern with paralegals or attorneys. In these internships, teenagers can attend trials and organize service programs in their local community.  Although youth advocacy may have its limits (e.g., having a hard time finding others who support your cause), teenagers are at a unique stage of life that allows them to connect with both adults and children.  Raise awareness of ageism.   Whether you believe it or not, a simple speech uploaded to YouTube, spoken to your classmates, or posted on your medical blog (just like I did!) can illuminate the detrimental consequences of practicing ageism.  Raising awareness both helps individuals recognize the significance of this issue and motivates them to proactively reform their unconscious biases.  Connect with individuals from different walks of life.  Teenagers are at the cusp of childhood but still a step away from adulthood. This unique standing provides them with the social skills to communicate with the elderly and the long-term thinking skills that allow them to teach children the dangers of ageism.  Overcoming biases is a two-way street; it requires the "teacher" to show compassion to those who are biased, but also the "student" to learn how detrimental biases can be. Embrace being in the position of both a teacher and a student. All in all, ageism is not an issue that can be solved overnight. However, youth advocacy can bridge communities from all walks of life. Image: Designed on Canva References World Health Organization: https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/ageing-ageism   https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health#:~:text=At%20this%20time%20the%20share,2050%20to%20reach%20426%20million . Nature: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-07489-2#:~:text=This%20ageism%20includes%20both%20prejudicial,patients5%2C6%2C7 . Image Credits iSTOCK https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/01/06/national/social-issues/japan-academic-societies-propose-defining-elderly-aged-75-older/   Other images were created using Canva. © 2025 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved Originally published at themedtales.com

As a high school junior, I know how overwhelming life can feel when you have a million tasks on your to-do list. Although many teens realize that asking for mental health guidance is OK, I can definitely relate to trying to hide my struggle with anxiety, issues at home, or overthinking. Yet, since October is the month of Mental Health Awareness, I wanted to open up the discussion on how mental health stigma affects teens today. Let's find out today 🧠 Image: Designed on Canva Primary types of mental health disorders Affecting about “one in seven 10-19-year-olds” worldwide, mental health issues are both widespread and have long-lasting impacts on their health. The following table, referencing data from the World Health Organization, exemplifies the various types and symptoms of psychological disorders. Type of Disorder Examples What can happen if it is untreated Statistics Emotional disorders Anxiety disorders, depressive disorders Suicide, decreased school performance, and social isolation Anxiety disorder affects around 4.1% of 10 to 14-year-olds and 5.35 of 15 to 19-year-olds. Behavioral disorders Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder Increased probability of committing a crime, decreased school performance ADHD affects around 2.7% of 10 to 14-year-olds and 2.2% of 15 to 19-year-olds Eating disorders Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa Suicide, premature death Eating disorders affect 0.1% of 10 to 14-year-olds and 0.4% of 15 to 19-year-olds. Psychosis Hallucinations, schizophrenia, delusions Stigmatized by society, difficulties in daily life, and education Psychosis affects 0.1% in 15-19 year olds Scientists typically attribute these disorders to exposure to risk factors , which in this case are primarily experiences that increase an individual's chance of having a mental illness. Ranging from childhood abuse to lack of mental health guidance, these risk factors may affect how teenagers respond to mental health issues . Mental Health Stigma Now we know the types of mental health disorders, but here’s the real question: why is it that most teenagers don’t ask for help? Let’s take a look at a study from the Stigma and Health Journal. Image: Lyra Health This study broke down stigma into 4 major categories: labeling, stereotypes, separation, and discrimination. Labels are recognition phrases that divide those with and without mental health issues. While most may have the preconception that labels are inherently bad , that is not always the case. For instance, self-labeling can help teens reach out for help, especially if they believe they have a condition that needs professional guidance. Yet, it is true that labels with negative connotations may lead to internalized feelings of stigma. As a result, some teenagers may avoid labeling their conditions entirely , simply due to the potential of stigma affecting other aspects of their lives, such as social relationships or personal reputation. What's more, participants of the study tended to distance themselves from those with severe mental health disorders, displaying the cycle of stigma that continues to exist today. What can I do as a teenager? With suicide being one of the primary causes of death among adolescents, professional intervention in this cycle is critical. As a teenager reading this article, you can also do several things to speak up about this issue! Image: Lyra Health Have (deep) conversations with people you trust. Everyone has things they don’t talk about, whether that is family conflict or seasonal depression. By a llowing yourself to be vulnerable to those you trust, you will not only build more authentic relationships but may also find yourself with sage advice. So, take the first step in having a deep conversation with a friend today. Share how you seek help. You don’t have to tell everyone in your high school that you go to counseling or therapy (unless you want to, of course). Taking one step is just as brave as a grand gesture. Sharing how you are seeking professional help for your mental well-being can open up the discussion on mental health issues and encourage a classmate or family member to also try counseling. Image: Designed on Canva If you find yourself in a group of individuals passionate about mental health, educate your community on mental health. Refer to local psychiatric services or even your guidance counselors at school to find out ways you can contribute to mental health literacy. Attend mental health conferences to gain an even deeper understanding of the underlying causes of mental health illnesses By making your local community aware of the importance of mental health, you can reach students who, despite having a smile on their faces, may have been struggling with stress or coping mechanisms. Share outside resources that discuss teen mental health. As I share posts that normalize the discussion of stigmatized health conditions through the Med Tales, you, too, can make mental health a norm, not a taboo. Share some of these awesome mental health videos with a classmate today! Penn State PRO Wellness https://youtu.be/1i9OktVsTWo?si=yqg33grugPcDRf9u ABC News https://youtu.be/gnEpRDh4Y2A?si=6d1Sm88942iU6etb National Institute of Mental Health https://youtu.be/wr4N-SdekqY?si=D1Ae1Tmzw7wKZGtP Final Notes Thank you for reaching the end of the article! Although we are reaching the end of October, mental health awareness does not happen on a single day or month. Rather, it comes from the slow process of dismantling barriers in healthcare. If you enjoyed this article, make sure to like it ✨ Image: Designed on Canva References World Health Organization: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health https://www.who.int/campaigns/world-mental-health-day National Library of Medicine: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9910848/ Hampton-Newport News Community Services Board Cares: https://www.hnncsb.org/nurturing-young-minds-a-call-for-mental-health-awareness-in-youth#:~:text=Youth Ascend: https://ascendbh.com/teen-mental-health-day-why-and-how-to-take-action/#:~:text=One Image Credits Lyra Health https://www.lyrahealth.com/resources/mental-health-stigma/ Other images were created using Canva. © 2025 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved Originally published at themedtales.com

For most teens, stress hits close to home (especially if you are balancing school and any kind of sleep schedule)! That’s why whenever teens think about stress, they may typically imagine themselves pacing the night before a big presentation or anxiously shaking their legs during an exam. However, stress is not always a curse! In fact, stress is an evolutionary mechanism that enabled our ancestors to survive and learn from experience. Today, let’s explore how stress manifests in our bodies and how to recognize these signals ! Types of Stress Stress is a natural phenomenon that occurs when you are faced with stressors , a term referring to any challenges or changes in your environment. There are three main types of stress. Acute stress Short-term stress from a specific event/period, typically associated with positive or  negative emotions Example: Riding a rollercoaster Episodic acute stress Regular stress that arises when your lifestyle and/or obligations limit the time or resources to calm down Example: Working at the Emergency Department and not having time to unwind Chronic stress Long-term stress that extends for weeks or months Example: Financial problems leading to stress that lasts for 3-4 months When your body recognizes a stressor, your adrenal gland releases hormones , including cortisol, epinephrine (AKA adrenaline), and norepinephrine, into your bloodstream . This release leads to various responses from your body, ranging from increasing your heartbeat to disrupting the lining of blood vessels (known as the endothelium). In the meantime, the brain activates the sympathetic nervous system , a part of a bigger system referred to as the autonomic nervous system. While the autonomic nervous system is largely responsible for regulating one’s breathing, heart rate, and vision, the sympathetic nervous system particularly homes in on your “fight-or-flight” response. The “fight-or-flight” response leads to your body subconsciously enlarging your pupils and slowing down digestion to help you survive in dangerous situations. Physical Manifestations of Stress While stress is a critical survival mechanism that can save in life-or-death situations, chronic stress may lead to serious consequences, impacting your physical, psychological, and behavioral health . There is a side-by-side comparison down below! Physical side effects Psychological side effects Behavioral side effects Headaches Anxiety Eating disorders Sleep deprivation Sadness Substance abuse Hypertension Panic attacks Smoking Digestive problems Depression Internet use addictions Long-Term Consequences of Stress Although temporary stress may help you during your SAT or a big home game to focus, prolonged stress can lead to bigger problems over time. For one, your immune system can weaken, leading to slower healing times or increasing your chances of being infected . Your cardiovascular system might also be compromised, increasing your risk for high blood pressure . Chronic stress can also affect your appetite . Since cortisol tends to increase your appetite, you are naturally drawn to consume carb-heavy foods . This can lead to visceral fat , a type of body fat that releases hormones and chemicals typically associated with insulin resistance. From a bird’s eye view, stress can even affect how long your life is . Telomeres, the caps at the ends of chromosomes, naturally shorten with age. However, with additional stress, these telomeres can shorten faster ! Without telomeres, cells cannot divide, leaving you just enough time before your body eventually deteriorates. However, because there is no objective measure of stress, healthcare professionals often 1) have a hard time diagnosing stress and 2) prioritize tackling the physical symptoms before understanding the root causes behind your stress. My Point-Of-View As a high-school student, I know how hard it can be to manage social relationships, academic diligence, and sleep at the same time. To be honest, I am not immune to stress either. Some days, I curl up and do nothing all day, while on other days, I feel confident after writing three essays. Don’t think there is a uniform “path” for everyone. You can go at your own pace , so trust that you’ll find your own way. Final Words Stress is an inevitable part of life that you cannot control, but what you can control is how you choose to respond to and manage stress. According to the Cleveland Clinic, mental health is inextricably tied to your physical health, so I encourage you to get some exercise—whether it is a stretch or a full-body workout—to help your brain register that it is not in danger. By setting goals and healthy boundaries, you can overcome this very stressful period of being a teenager. Always know that if you feel overwhelmed or burnt out, you can reach out for help through your school counselors or therapists. If you are considering inflicting self-harm, please reach out to your local crisis lifeline. References Cleveland Clinic: https://health.clevelandclinic.org/what-happens-to-your-body-during-the-fight-or-flight-response https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/11874-stress https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23262-sympathetic-nervous-system-sns-fight-or-flight TED-Ed: https://youtu.be/v-t1Z5-oPtU?si=Wq-MuZe4yruwtsIY Image Credits All images were created using Canva. © 2025 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved Originally published at themedtales.com

You might hear E. Coli and think it’s some mysterious, fatal disease that you’ve never encountered before. In reality, E. Coli is a bit like celebrities: lots of people have strong opinions or misconceptions about it! Today, let’s break down what E. Coli really is, the risks associated with it, and steps you can take to prevent outbreaks. Image: Harpeth Conservancy What is E. Coli? The full name of E. Coli is Escherichia coli . It’s a single-celled organism that lives in the colons of warm-blooded animals. In other words, it is a coliform bacterium . 👍 The Pros Most strains of E. Coli are actually innocuous and even helpful in the gastrointestinal tract. In your gut, E. Coli plays a role in digesting food, assembling vitamins, and fighting off harmful toxins. It is also one of the few gut bacteria that can exist under oxygen . You can think of E. Coli as a superhero for your gut, absorbing up all of the oxygen so the rest of your microbiome environment can thrive! Image: Science Photo Library Additionally, E. coli has been a “model organism” for scientists for decades. Knowledge about key information regarding DNA, including codons and gene expression, can be attributed to the experiments on the K-12 strain of E. Coli. 👎 The Cons But E. Coli isn’t always your superhero. Image: Marler Clark Because E. Coli is also released in the feces of warm-blooded animals , it can reach water systems through leaky sewer pipes, poor septic systems, or runoff from manure and wildlife. Some strains of E. Coli are pathogenic, meaning they cause illness. Yet, even non-pathogenic strains can cause trouble when consumed in contaminated food or water. Potential consequences of an E. Coli infection include: Pneumonia Sepsis Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) - a dangerous condition where inflamed blood vessels lead to clots that can damage the kidney and other organs. Children and those with weak immune systems are especially vulnerable! 🦠 How does E. Coli Attack? E. Coli releases toxins into intestinal cells, telling them to either stop absorbing water or release more water (which leads to diarrhea). Symptoms usually appear 3-4 days after exposure and last about 5-7 days. Most people can recover with the right resources, but if the disease progresses, don't hesitate to get in touch with your local healthcare provider ! 🩺 Precautions Image: Designed on Canva The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends some simple habits that can prevent an E. Coli infection: Wash your hands, utensils, and surfaces (especially before cooking or eating) Separate raw and cooked food Place perishable food in the refrigerator (within 2 hours) Use a food thermometer to check that your meals are safely cooked ⭐️ I hope you learned something new about E. Coli, our gut health’s superhero and occasionally, our archnemesis! References: CDC: https://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/about/index.html   CDC Outbreaks: https://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/outbreaks/index.html Health Canada: https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/programs/consultation-e-coli-drinking-water/document.html#a2-1 NCBI: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562895/   EPA: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2021-07/parameter-factsheet_e.-coli.pdf   Image Credits: Harpeth Conservancy: https://harpethconservancy.org/understanding-e-coli-what-it-is-and-why-it-matters/ Science Photo Gallery: https://sciencephotogallery.com/featured/2-e-coli-bacterial-culture-lewis-houghtonscience-photo-library.html Marker Clark: https://www.foodpoisonjournal.com/food-poisoning-information/e-coli-o157h7-can-be-a-deadly-bug/   © 2025 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved Originally published at themedtales.com

💌 Period Talk Matters “Bloody Mary”, “Code Red”, “Monthly visitor." The average period is known to last for 2 to 7 days. These are just a few of the euphemisms for a perfectly normal phenomenon that every teenage girl navigates through each month: the menstrual cycle. For centuries, women’s health has not received the attention it deserves. According to studies from 2009 to 2019, there was proportionally less female representation in clinical trials due to misogynistic beliefs. The American Association of Medical Colleges (AAMC) reports that until the 1990s, researchers simply assumed women's symptoms to be the same as men’s (Spoiler Alert: they’re not!). But enough about history. Let’s get to the stuff you actually care about: the science behind period pain, proven tips to relieve cramps, and the common myths regarding our "monthly visitor." ✨ Why Do Period Cramps Happen? What is truly happening inside our bodies during our periods? To start, let’s discuss the two types of painful periods---primary and secondary dysmenorrhea. Primary dysmenorrhea is typically caused by chemicals that your uterus produces, known as prostaglandins , that affect the way your uterus contracts and relaxes . As the muscles in your uterus move, this can cause the cramps you experience during or before your period starts. Meanwhile, secondary dysmenorrhea involves cramps brought on by other conditions, like endometriosis or uterine fibroids. Teen girls, there is most likely no need to worry just yet, because these conditions typically affect women later in life. But what should you do if your cramps are too much to handle? 🛁 Quick Relief Tips for Cramps Don't worry; I have a few scientifically-proven tips for relieving cramps. TIP 1: Place a hot water bottle or a heating pad near your abdomen. The heat can help relax the muscles in your uterus, thereby leading to fewer cramps! TIP 2: Practice some light stretching or exercise. Stretching can improve blood flow throughout the body, which can lead to less fatigue and tension. POV: Me every month when "Bloody Mary" visits... TIP 3: Take a warm bath and turn on your favorite music playlist to ground yourself. TIP 4: Practice meditation. Your mental state can also influence how you feel physically! TIP 5: Take over-the-counter medications if the pain is severe. NSAIDS (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) decrease the amount of prostaglandin production to relieve your cramps. However, please consult your primary physician before taking these pills, especially if you have other health conditions like liver disease, aspirin allergy, etc. 💖 When Should You See a Doctor? Don’t be afraid to reach out for professional aid! You are not weak for asking for help. Healthcare professionals recommend seeing the doctor: If you have taken NSAIDs and practiced the tips above, but continue to feel pain, If you have a fever alongside cramps, or If you feel abdominal pain regularly. Certainly, these are not the only circumstances in which you should seek professional help! If you feel that the pain is prolonged and severe, please consult a physician. 🌸 Myth vs. Fact Growing up, you may have heard false rumors regarding periods. But let's debunk these one by one! Let's debunk these myths once and for all! 🚫 MYTH 1: Periods make you “impure” or “contaminated”. ✅ Nope! Periods are simply a sign of physical maturity, and women should not be shamed for a natural phenomenon. Menstruation is not a disease that harms you or others around you. 🚫 MYTH 2: Buying sanitary products should be done secretly and covertly. ✅ Access to sanitary products is a basic human right. Hence, just as society typically does not shame individuals purchasing toothpaste or soap, women should not be shamed for buying pads or tampons. 🚫 MYTH 3: Girls should not discuss menstruation in public. ✅  In various cultures, periods are a stigmatized topic, reserved for mothers and daughters only. However, girls should not have to feel ashamed of their bodies’ natural processes! I hope this helped you feel a little more prepared (and less alone) on your period journey ❤️ If you want to learn more about other teenage phenomena, check out my post on “What Happens To Your Body When You Pull an All-Nighter” . References: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8812498/#:~:text=Several https://medlineplus.gov/periodpain.html#:~:text=The https://www.aamc.org/news/why-we-know-so-little-about-women-s-health https://www.unicef.org/rosa/stories/7-alarming-myths-about-periods-we-have-end-now © 2025 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved Originally published at themedtales.com

PRE-KNOWLEDGE Atom : the smallest unit of matter Contains: protons (+ charge) neutrons (0 charge) electrons (- charge) Note: electrons are of a much smaller size than protons or neutrons. Neutrons are slightly bigger than protons. Element : a substance made up of only one type of atom In a periodic table, it is expressed with: Atomic number: expresses the number of protons that an element contains (remains the same ALL the time) Chemical Symbol (abbreviation of the first two letters or Latin root name) Element Name Atomic weight NOTE: Even when the number of neutrons or electrons changes, the number of protons is always consistent within the same element. Isotope : a version of an element that contains a different number of neutrons Ion : a group of atoms that has a charge Anion: an ion with a negative net charge → more electrons than protons Cation: an ion with a positive net charge → more protons than electrons Chemical Bonds: [Kaylyn's Analogy: BULLY IS TAKING UR FOOD]   Ionic Bond: a bond between oppositely charged ions One atom gives up its electron to give to another atom Essentially, everyone wants to maintain their perfect octet structure, and the different elements are doing what is most CONVENIENT and EFFICIENT to them to [Kaylyn's Analogy: SHARING IS CARING]   Covalent Bond : a chemical bond formed when electrons are SHARED between two atoms Molecule :  a group of 2 or more atoms that are COVALENTLY  bonded together Chemical : a substance with a definite composition → able to determine all of its properties and characteristics Compound : a substance of 2 or more different elements that have been chemically joined Valence Electrons : electrons on the outer shell of the atom Polar : molecule has unequal charge Non-Polar : molecule has evenly spread charge TOPIC 1.1 - All about water Water’s Characteristics 1 electronegative oxygen atom (it likes to hog electrons) and 2 hydrogen atoms that want to get rid of one valence electron to complete a set The oxygen molecule and the hydrogen molecules are connected by COVALENT BONDS  (bonds where multiple molecules share electrons) The different water molecules are connected by HYDROGEN BONDS  (bonds that form because of the slight polarity  of water molecules) There is a partial NEGATIVE charge at the oxygen, a partial POSITIVE charge at the hydrogens - this causes the negative ends to be attracted to the positive ends (and vice versa) Hydrophillic molecules LOVE water, hydrophobic molecules DO NOT (oils and fats) Water’s Properties Cohesion: all water molecules move with each other The reason for water having a high surface tension  (the little bubble cover you see on top of the water’s surface) High Surface Tension: resistance of water’s surface to rupture when placed under tension (like a bug or a paper clip) Reasoning: the water molecules on the surface of the water have no molecules pulling them from above, so ****they are more attracted to each other (COHESION) than the AIR. The surface contracts to the smallest possible surface area as a result of this attraction ex) water droplets, insects gliding on water High Heat Capacity heat capacity: the amount of heat needed for 1 gram of water to increase by 1°C If the heat capacity is high, it means that it needs lots of heat for water to increase → makes the overall temperature of an environment or organism very stable, won’t constantly change because of some extra heat → MINIMIZES TEMP VARIATIOn High heat of vaporization heat of vaporization: the amount of energy needed to change 1 gram of liquid water to its gas form at a constant temp. if the heat of vaporization is high, it means it needs a lot of energy to change from liquid to gas → to regulate temperature and avoid overheating Adhesion: water’s ability to stick to other surfaces responsible for most  of capillary action and transpiration transpiration: the process by which evaporation + cohesion + adhesion pulls up  water in plants ex) water can travel up the xylem in trees UNIVERSAL SOLVENT: able to dissolve POLAR molecules quickly Reasoning: a water molecule has a slight polarity, which is why it can form ionic bonds (bonds that take another’s electrons) with other polar molecules ex) mix salt in water Density as a solid GAS: water molecules are spread apart LIQUID: water molecules are close together → hydrogen bonds are easily broken apart SOLID: water molecules form a crystal structure → hydrogen bonds are stable Because the density of ice is LESS than the density of liquid water,  it allows aquatic life to survive during the winter because the lake will freeze from TOP-BOTTOM, instead of BOTTOM-UP. This is also the reason why ice floats (a substance floats of it is less dense than other components in the mixture) CAPILLARY ACTION and MENISCUS Capillary action: Cohesion + Adhesion in action attraction between water molecules (cohesion) enables the water molecules to move as a group The surface tension allows the surface to be intact attraction between water and container (adhesion) enables the water to go up RESULT: a concave meniscus examples) dip a paper towel in water and the water climbs up the towel roots carry water from the soil to the plant tear ducts carry tears to the eye Difference between covalent vs. hydrogen bonds Covalent bonds are WITHIN one water molecule (between the oxygen and 2 hydrogens) Hydrogen bonds exist with different water molecules (as the partially positive ends connect with the partially negative ends) TOPIC 1.2 - ELEMENTS OF LIFE The only elements you need to know: CHONPS Carbon - central element Hydrogen - used in energy exchange (NAD+, NADH in cellular respiration), used to create energy gradients, standard for acidity/alkalinity (acids vs. bases) Nitrogen - nitrogen cycle Oxygen - photosynthesis + cellular respiration Phosphorus - in ATP Sulfur 4 Macromolecules’ Elemental Composition Nucleic Acids: Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, phosphorus, hydrogen [CHONP] Proteins: Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, sulfur [CHONS] Carbohydrates: Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen [CHO] Lipids: Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, phosphorus [CHO (P)] TOPIC 1.3 Monomer: a building block for polymers Polymer: a large molecule made of repeating subunits (monomers) → with specific 3D shapes and functions Like a LEGO CASTLE! Dehydration synthesis - ENZYMES c ombining monomers to create polymers also called “condensation reaction” Dehydration: because water is the waste product of the reaction Synthesis: because we are combining two molecules into one ENZYMES run this reaction enzymes pull a hydroxyl group off of one monomer and pull a hydrogen out of the other monomer → AKA creates H20 and pulls it out This creates a COVALENT BOND between the two molecules to SHARE ELECTRONS Hydrolysis - ENZYMES breaking down polymers into monomers Reactions that end with “lyse” have to do with breaking down something Enzymes insert a water molecule between the two monomer components and this breaks the bond that held the two monomers together Functional Group: a group of atoms that provide a particular function or characteristic when it is present in another molecule Hydroxyl [OH]: Polar, hydrophilic Carbonyl [C=O]: Polar, hydrophilic → increases solubility (ability to dissolve in a solvent) of water Carboxyl [COOH]: Polar, hydrophilic acidic → likes to donate their hydrogen ions (H+) → becomes COO- essential in amino acids Amine group [NH2]: Polar, hydrophilic Basic → wants to gain another hydrogen ion essential in amino acids Phosphate group [PO43-]: polar, hydrophilic acidic → wants to lose hydrogen ions Key for energy exchange in ATP (adenosine triphosphate) → addition or removal of phosphate is used to store or release energy phosphorylation/dphosphorylation Sulfhydryl group [SH]: polar, hydrophilic likes to form bonds with other sulfhydryl molecules → this forms a disulfide bridge, which is important in protein structure and folding Methyl group [CH3]: nonpolar and hydrophobic DNA methylation → methyl group is used to turn off genes appears in phospholipid tails Acetyl: used to activate DNA (opp of methyl) NOTE: ALL macromolecules are composed of monomers that have already gone through dehydration synthesis to form those large, complex molecules. TOPIC 1.4 Macromolecule: a large, organic molecule 4 Different types of macromolecules/biomolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids Lipid: hydrophobic → phospholipid bilyaer Nucleic Acid: DNA and RNA Carbohydrate: ends with “—ose” Protein: peptide bonds 4 Major Macromolecules’ Characteristics Carbohydrates NOTE: all carbohydrates end with “—ose” Name analysis Carbo: 6 carbons Hydrate: same ratio of oxygen: hydrogen  as the ratio of oxygen: hydrogen in water ( 1 oxygen: 2 hydrogens ) Alternative name: Saccharide = Greek word for sweet 🍭 because glucose tastes sweet What does it contain? one carbon atom to one water molecule [MONOMER OF CARBOHYDRATES] Monosaccharides: “one sugar” Function) energy source and building blocks for more complex sugar structures The most common form → exactly one carbon atom for each H20 molecule (with around 3-7 carbon atoms in total) Most oxygen atoms are found in hydroxyl form (OH), one is part of a carbonyl (C=O) group They can be in RING-shaped form or LINEAR chain → alpha (opposite sides) and beta form (same side) Named based on # of carbons Trioses (3 carbons) Pentoses (5 carbons) Hexoses (6 carbons) ISOMER : having the same chemical formula, but different atom configuration Glucose  (6-carbon sugar) Galactose:  sugar found in milk - a stereoisomer of glucose (atoms are bonded in the same order, but different 3D organization) Fructose:  sugar found in fruit - a structural isomer of glucose and galactose (atoms are bonded in a different order) Disaccharides: two monosaccharides join together through dehydration synthesis  (release a water molecule and form a covalent bond known as GLYCOSIDIC   LINKAGE ) Function) energy transfer Examples: Lactose  (the sugar in milk) combination of glucose and galactose Lactase: the enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose into monosaccharides → which mammals create when they are still drinking their mother’s milk because they need to be able to digest the milk. However, when you are an adult, most mammals don’t produce lactase because they don’t need to drink milk anymore. Yet, because some human groups had access to milk products even when they were adults, this created groups that were able to have lactase persistence (continuing to produce lactase even through adulthood). Maltose  (malt sugar) - two glucose molecules Sucrose  (table sugar) - glucose and fructose Polysaccharides: a long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds Function) energy storage and structure Examples of energy storage) Starch - a stored form of sugar in plants a combination of two polysaccharides - amylose and amylopectin amylose: chains of glucose monomers amylopectin: mostly glucose monomers [DIGESTING CELLULOSE]  Most animals cannot break down (hydrolyze) the bonds connecting the glucose monomers in cellulose (because we don’t have the enzymes that will actually use it for energy). A few animals (termites or ruminants) have symbiotic relationships with microorganisms that can convert cellulose into glucose. On the other hand, starch has different bonds, which is why humans can digest it more easily. Glycogen - storm form of sugars in HUMANS and other VERTEBRATES A polymer of glucose monomers Stored in liver and muscle cells When blood glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down through hydrolysis Examples of structure Cellulose - the substance that cell walls are made up of glucose monomers by 1-4 glycosidic bonds Beta glycosidic linkages → cannot be digested by humans [DIGESTING CELLULOSE]  Most animals cannot break down (hydrolyze) the bonds connecting the glucose monomers in cellulose (because we don’t have the enzymes that will actually use it for energy). A few animals (termites or ruminants) have symbiotic relationships with microorganisms that can convert cellulose into glucose. On the other hand, starch has different bonds, which is why humans can digest them more easily. Hydrophilic → wants to go outside Adenine and guanine are two-ringed → purine Cytosine and thymine are single-ringed → primidine partial - charge at nitrogen, partial + charge at hydrogen partial - charge at oxygen, partial + charge at hydrogen So, this forms a hydrogen bond Get rid of the methyl group from thymine to make uracil Why uracil? → evolution theory that it came before thymine (which is like an upgraded version LOL) Chitin - the substance for the exoskeleton of insects resembles cellulose, made up of glucose and nitrogen Lipids Need to be WHOLLY or PARTLY nonpolar (hydrophobic) Note composed of REPEATING monomers → they have monomers though… Functions Fats/Oils: energy storage Waxes: waterproofing Phospholipid: membrane formation Steroid: signaling hormones Phospholipid Hydrophobic/nonpolar tail Hydrophillic/polar head Head and tail connected by glycerol When they are in water, the heads interact with water and the tails avoid water Names: triglycerides (fats/oils), triacylglycerol Fatty acid Fatty: bc the carbon chain is hydrophobic Acid: bc there is a carboxyl group (that is acidic) Glycerol: 3 carbon chain, each with an OH group → sugar alcohol (because it has a hydroxyl group) 3 Acyl groups: a carbonyl group that is bonded to another chain Bond between these two through dehydration synthesis → forms covalent bonds together also releasing 3 water molecules Saturated fats no double bonds between carbons “saturating the fat with as many hydrogens  as possible” solid at room temperature → relatively dense ex) butter Unsaturated fats not as many hydrogens as possible keeps the molecules from being dense → typically liquid at room temperature Monounsaturated fat → only 1 double bond between carbons Polyunsaturated fat → multiple double bonds between carbons Trans fats: “unhealthy” “cis configuration” “trans configuration” → not found in nature, where you saturate the unsaturated fats with more hydrogen but not enough to be a saturated fat, trans bonds TOPIC 1.5 CENTRAL DOGMA: the process of creating proteins goes from DNA to RNA to protein DNA replication, transcription, translation DNA REPLICATION Location: Eukaryotic cell → nucleus Prokaryotic cell → not in nucleus When: before cell division (mitosis/meiosis) → interphase Players: many enzymes that ends in “ase” → speed up reactions Helicase: unzipping enzyme → breaks the hydrogen bonds that holds the bases together DNA Polymerase: replicates the DNA molecules Primase: tells the DNA polymerase where to start working by creating the primer (made up of RNA) Ligase: glues the DNA fragments together Process Starts at the Origin → helicase unwinds the DNA the SSB (single-stranded binding proteins) keep the two strands separated the topoisomerase prevents the DNA from supercoiling Primase creates the RNA primers on both strands DNA polymerase builds the new strands in the 5’ to 3’ direction [leading strand]. Hence, the 3’ to 5’ direction has to constantly try and keep up with the unwinding. This strand is called the lagging strand, where primers have to keep being placed. Fragments = “OKAZAKI fragments” The ligase seals the gaps between the okazaki fragments Semi-conservative: each copy contains one original strand and one new strand TRANSCRIPTION → change one form of something into another form Location: nucleus Process DNA is unzipped by the RNA polymerase at the promoter (the marker that indicates where the RNA polymerase should attach to the DNA strand) The RNA polymerase “reads” the DNA’s bases and creates complementary pairs. [This time, thymine is replaced with uracil. Everything else stays the same]. DNA - 3 prime to 5 prime Messenger RNA - 5 prime to 3 prime direction This forms an mRNA (messenger RNA) strand, which is then sent out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm. TRANSLATION → translating RNA nucleotides into chain of amino acids Location: cytoplasm/ribosome Process The tRNA strands reads the mRNA’s bases in threes. Certain tRNA strands bind to the mRNA if they are complementary. Transfer RNA strands are just floating in the cytoplasm; they have an amino acid attached to them) One comes and leaves an amino acid behind, another tRNA comes and leaves an amino acid behind, etc. → a long chain of amino acids Continues until the stop codon indicates that the polypeptide (chain of long amino acids) is complete MORE BACKGROUND INFO What is an acid vs. a base? Essentially, solutions are classified as acid/base based on their hydrogen ion concentration relative to pure water Acid: a cation contains a high concentration of hydrogen ions (H+), greater than pure water → wants to increase the concentration of H+ in a solution by donating one of its hydrogen atoms pH lower than 7 → acidic Base: an anion contains a low concentration of hydrogen ions, less than pure water → wants to decrease the concentration of H+ in a solution by providing a molecule that removes hydrogen ions pH above 7 → basic (alkaline) pH: the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution 0-14 (nothing lower or higher) Neutral pH: 7 (the pH of water) What is deprotonation vs. protonation? Deprotonation: removal of H+ Protonation: addition of H+ How do you number carbon? Note: the numbering for the carbon always pertains to the SUGAR portion of the nucleotide for DNA: either 5’ to 3’ OR 3’ to 5’ Sugar of DNA has carbons → the carbons on the sugar are numbered right AFTER the oxygen in a CLOCKWISE direction → 5’ to 3’ → 3’ to 5’ Proteins: macromolecules made out of amino acids Amino acids: monomers of proteins Involved in the translation process to create proteins to serve different functions to survive 20 common amino acids Name Analysis Amino: it contains an AMINE functional group Acid: it contains a carboxyl functional group → carboxyl is acidic (wants to donate its protons) ALL amino acids have an alpha carbon (central carbon) that has a covalent bond with: 1) Amine group 2) Carboxyl group 3) 1 hydrogen atom 4) R group - can be polar, non-polar, acidic, basic, etc. The difference is in the 4th covalent bond with a side chain → AKA called R GROUPS These side chains determine the behavior/shape of the proteins (how they fold, interact with the environment, etc.) No polarity → Hydrophobic → want to enter inside of the protein Polarity → Hydrophilic → want to be outside of the protein How do the amino acids connect? → through peptide bonds Dipeptide: the smallest chain, a molecule with 2 amino acids connected by 1 peptide bond Polypeptide: chains of amino acids → can eventually become a protein or a part of a protein Primary Str: a sequence  of the polypeptide (chain of amino acids connected by peptide bonds, created by ribosomes during translation/protein synthesis) Linear chain Secondary Str: interactions involving the polypeptide’s backbone in 3D form interactions between carbonyl groups and amino groups → through dehydration synthesis, they form hydrogen bonds and they create a particular shape Two common forms alpha helix → corkscrew shape beta-pleated sheets → if the parts of the polypeptide chain is parallel or antiparallel Tertiary Str: interactions between amino acid side chains (R groups) The overall shape is determined by the R group in the amino acids (aka the SIDE CHAINS) The R group determines the characteristics of the amino acids, so this also determines the folding/shape of the protein New ingredients) Hydrogen bonds Ionic bonds Covalent bonds Hydrophobic clustering If the R group is hydrophobic, that amino acid will try to get away from water by going inside Hydrophilic → wants to go outside Adenine and guanine are two-ring → purine Cytosine and thymine are single-ringed → primidine partial - charge at nitrogen, partial + charge at hydrogen partial - charge at oxygen, partial + charge at hydrogen So, this forms a hydrogen bond Get rid of the methyl group from thymine to make uracil Why uracil? → evolution theory that it came before thymine (which is like an upgraded version LOL) Quaternary Structure: interactions between multiple folded tertiary polypeptides TOPIC 1.6 Nucleic acids: macromolecules made out of nucleotides DNA: genetic material found in living organisms → MOLECULE OF HEREDITY Location: Eukaryotes → nucleus Prokaryotes → nucleoid (special cell region) NAME Deoxyribonucleic acid → It is a nucleic acid because it is found in the nucleus of eukaryotes Deoxyribose → comes from the deoxyribose sugar Deoxyribose sugar is 5-carbon sugar that, typically, takes on a pentagonal/ring-like structure Acid → considered an acid because each nucleotide contains a phosphate group What is a nucleotide? Basic building block of nucleic acid Contains 1 sugar group, 1 phosphate group, 1 nitrogenous base Nitrogenous base pairs (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine) Adenine and guanine are two-ring → purines Cytosine and thymine are single-ringed → primidine partial - charge at nitrogen, partial + charge at hydrogen partial - charge at oxygen, partial + charge at hydrogen So, this forms a hydrogen bond Get rid of the methyl group from thymine to make uracil Why uracil? → evolution theory that it came before thymine (which is like an upgraded version LOL) A phosphate group (makes it an acid) A sugar group (deoxyribose sugar) Connected to other nucleotides Note: the nitrogenous bases are connected via HYDROGEN BONDS Nitrogen wants to gather hydrogen protons because it is electron-negative. Nitrogen is electronegative, so when nitrogen bonds with a hydrogen partial - charge at nitrogen, partial + charge at hydrogen partial - charge at oxygen, partial + charge at hydrogen So, this forms a hydrogen bond Get rid of the methyl group from thymine to make uracil Why uracil? → evolution theory that it came before thymine (which is like an upgraded version LOL) Oxygen is also electronegative partial - charge at oxygen, partial + charge at hydrogen So, this forms a hydrogen bond Get rid of the methyl group from thymine to make uracil Why uracil? → evolution theory that it came before thymine (which is like an upgraded version LOL) Note: the phosphate and sugar groups are connected by phosphodiester linkages What does DNA contain? Chains of nucleotides What is the DNA structure? Double helix structure - like a twisted ladder with rungs consisting of the nucleotide/nitrogenous bases, the backbone consists of the sugar and phosphate The two strands are considered complementary because they match perfectly with each other and form a helix together Anti-parallel structure of DNA The direction of the deoxyribose sugars is different for left and right ladders Count the carbons after the oxygen in a clockwise direction Left side: 5’ to 3’ direction Right side: 3’ to 5’ direction RNA Properties Single-stranded Ribose, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group Functions Some viruses use RNA as their “genetic material” Information transfer It can act as an enzyme to catalyze reactions ATP is RNA’s monomer What is the RNA structure? Just add a hydroxyl group to all of the deoxyribose sugars on the left-hand side only because RNA tends to be SINGLE-STRANDED The nitrogenous bases are slightly different, but JUST LIKE DNA, they all have NUCLEOTIDES [nitrogen-containing ring (nitrogenous base), a five-carbon sugar, and at least one phosphate group) Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil (in place of thymine) Get rid of the methyl group from thymine to make uracil Why uracil? → evolution theory that it came before thymine (which is like an upgraded version LOL) Different types of RNA Messenger RNA (mRNA) - serves as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes by being a copy of a strand of DNA Then, the ribosome reads the mRNA’s nucleotides in groups of three (called CODONS) to create a complementary strand. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - helps mRNA bind in the right spot at the ribosome so that its nucleotides can be read, and also helps create bonds that link amino acids Transfer RNA (tRNA) “CARRIERS”  - involved in protein synthesis, for bringing the amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis NUCLEOTIDES Nitrogenous bases Adenine and guanine - purines (structures contain two fused  carbon-nitrogen rings) Cytosine and thymine - pyrimidines ( a single  carbon-nitrogen ring) Sugars (slightly different for DNA and RNA): both 5-carbon sugars Deoxyribose: "deoxy" = lacking one oxygen Ribose: has an oxygen atom Phosphate In DNA and RNA, each nucleotide has one phosphate group POLYNUCLEOTIDE CHAINS Has directionality → two ends go in different directions DNA goes from 5’ to 3’ When a new nucleotide is attached through the sugar ends, the bond is called a phosphodiester linkage EXTRA VOCAB Amphiphatic molecules: having both polar and nonpolar regions Amphi = both kinds on both sides Able to interact with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules Adenine and thymine = purines, connected by 2 hydrogen bonds Cytosine and guanine = pyrimidine, connected by 3 hydrogen bonds → more stable, harder to break NOTE: Every unlabeled vertex implies that there is a CARBON ATOM

This essay strives to answer the question, " How and Why Does Peer Influence Affect Adolescents?" Peer influence "...involves changing one’s behavior to meet the perceived expectations of others”. This phenomenon primarily affects adolescents—“the age between puberty…and the age at which you [they] attain a stable, independent role in society”—because of structural metamorphoses in the brain. Understanding why peer influence occurs and analyzing its effect on adolescents can help juvenile facilities create environments where adolescents can learn from their mistakes and grow.  Recently, the University of Chicago Press conducted a study where adolescents were randomly assigned into peer groups to study together for an exam. The organization initially measured a student’s work ethic by four categories: how determined they were in the face of challenges, how confident they were of their academic skills, how anxious they were about their future success, and how prone they were to “engage in risky behavior”. Results of the experiment showed how studying with more persistent peers raised one’s overall GPA, whereas studying with risk-prone students had the opposite effect.  The extent of peer influence lies far beyond how adolescents perform at school, however. Dr. Laurence Steinberg from Temple University created the “Spotlight Game”—an online game where an adolescent within a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanner must decide to stop or go at a yellow-light intersection. The first time, the participant plays, assuming no one is watching them. The second time, however, the adolescent hears their friends’ voices through a speaker and is notified that their friends are observing them. Adolescents had more car accidents in the virtual game when informed of their peers' presence. To explain this phenomenon, Sarah-Jayne Blakemore, a psychology and cognitive neuroscience professor at the University of Cambridge, studied how the social brain—“the network of brain regions that are involved in understanding other people”—undergoes a rapid transformation during adolescence. First, the limbic system—the brain region that triggers human reward systems—is sensitive in adolescents because there is an increase in chemicals that heighten pleasure from risk-taking. In other words, adolescent brains directly view social acceptance from their peers as a reward for their risky behavior. Furthermore, the prefrontal cortex—the brain region that affects "judgment, impulse control, and planning”—develops much later than the limbic system, explaining why adolescents rely more on emotions than reasoning.  Consequently, this raises the dilemma of how adolescents should be punished for crimes. In the United States, two-thirds of juvenile facilities are correctional-style, meaning that adolescent criminals are confined from society when they commit a crime. Yet, since adolescent behavior changes with different peer influences, Michael Corriero—the founder of the New York Center for Juvenile Justice—advises that the primary goal when addressing juvenile crimes “…should be that of rehabilitation and not a punitive one”.  As explored in this essay, peers have an increasing presence in one’s habits and decision-making skills during adolescence because of their developing limbic system and prefrontal cortex. While there is still debate on how to address juvenile crimes, examining the effect of peer influence on adolescents can eventually design a world that leads adolescents one step closer to adulthood. Bibliography Brains on Trial with Alan Alda: Peer Influence and Adolescent Behavior [online video], Brains on Trial, 26 September 2013, https://youtu.be/rt9MyNo65eI?si=th1Wu_0vsn8aEG9h , (Last Accessed: 30 December 2023) Burns A. and Darling N., “Peer Pressure Is NOT Peer Influence”, The Education Digest, 82:1 (2002): 4-6 https://ucolibinstruction.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/ed-article-4.pdf Department of Psychology, “Professor Sarah-Jayne Blakemore”, University of Cambridge,  [ https://www.psychol.cam.ac.uk/staff/professor-sarah-jayne-blakemore/  Last Accessed: 30 December 2023] Golsteyn B. H. H., Non A., and Zölitz U., “The Impact of Peer Personality on Academic Achievement”, Journal of Political Economy , 129:4 (2021): 1052–1099 https://doi.org/10.1086/712638 How friendship affects your brain – Shannon Odell  [online video], TED-Ed, 16 September 2022, https://youtu.be/YmVpwXH4jhA?si=cQOV4NX6bLOmkISy , (Last Accessed: 30 December 2023) Jones T., “Brain Development During Adolescence”, Lumen Learning , [ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/chapter/brain-development-during-adolescence/#footnote-2982-1 / Last Accessed: 30 December 2023] “Michael Corriero”, Virtue Foundation , [ https://virtuefoundation.org/committee/michael-corriero/#:~:text=Judge%20Corriero%20is%20the%20Executive,York%20Center%20for%20Juvenile%20Justice./  Last Accessed: 30 December 2023] Sarah-Jayne Blakemore: The mysterious workings of the adolescent brain  [online video], 18 September 2012, https://youtu.be/6zVS8HIPUng?si=7XIffBg_9I_xdnxk , (Last Accessed: 30 December 2023)  The juvenile system is broken. Here’s what actually works. [online video], PBS NewsHour, 29 October 2021, https://youtu.be/q1fsysGy_hM?si=i7tw5YsN-AV3zb0D , (Last Accessed: 30 December 2023).  The Neuroscience of the Teenage Brain—with Sarah-Jayne Blakemore  [online video], The Royal Institution, 22 August 2018, https://youtu.be/yQXhFa8dRCI?si=d5tWUOtyjMZGeAXl , (Last Accessed: 30 December 2023). © 2023 Kaylyn K. | All rights reserved  Originally published at themedtales.com